STORIA DELLA CHIMICA E TAVOLA PERIODICA

Academic Year 2026/2027 - Teacher: GIUSEPPE GRASSO

Expected Learning Outcomes

The educational objective of the course is to provide a general overview of the history of chemistry from its origins to the early 20th century, outlining the key themes and conceptual breakthroughs that shaped its evolution, with particular emphasis on the Periodic Table of Elements. The course will cover the foundations of scientific thought, the historical and cultural context in which chemistry developed, and the impact of this evolution on society and the environment—particularly following the advent of early inorganic industrial processes. A section will be dedicated to the main methods and tools of chemistry education, aimed at acquiring the fundamental skills needed to design effective teaching strategies. Practical sessions involving the application of the learned teaching methodologies will follow.

1. Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of the course, students will have acquired knowledge of the key stages in the evolution of chemistry from its origins to the early 20th century, understanding the historical, cultural, and scientific context that fostered its development. They will be familiar with the discipline's major conceptual milestones—specifically the emergence and evolution of the Periodic Table of Elements—as well as the fundamentals of chemistry education.

2. Applying Knowledge and Understanding

Students will be able to interpret the evolution of chemical thought in relation to its historical and social context, analyze the significance of major scientific discoveries and their impact on society and the environment, and design simple educational pathways using appropriate methods and tools for teaching chemistry.

3. Making Judgements

Students will develop the ability to critically evaluate the role of chemistry in societal development and scientific progress by analyzing the relationships between scientific knowledge, technological innovation, and environmental impacts. They will also be able to select appropriate teaching methodologies based on educational objectives and the specific educational context.

4. Communication Skills

Students will be able to clearly and rigorously present key topics in the history of chemistry and chemistry education, using appropriate scientific terminology and adapting their language to various communicative and educational contexts.
5. Learning Skills

Students will have developed the skills necessary to independently explore topics related to the history of chemistry, the teaching of the discipline, and the evolution of scientific knowledge, while critically utilizing bibliographic sources and tools for keeping up to date with scientific and educational developments.

Course Structure

Lectures (35 hours) and laboratory (3 experiments, 15 h)

Required Prerequisites

Basic knowledge of chemistry

Attendance of Lessons

Mandatory attendance

Detailed Course Content

Origins of Chemistry and Proto-chemistry
The origins of chemical practices in ancient civilizations. Control of fire and early transformations of matter. Metallurgy, glass and ceramic working, lime production, pigments, and dyes. Preparation of cosmetics, perfumes, soaps, medicines, and fermented beverages.

Alchemy and the Birth of Chemical Practice
Origins and development of alchemy in Chinese, Indian, and Alexandrian cultures. Arabic alchemy and the transmission of knowledge to the Western world. Medieval and European alchemy. The role of monasteries, translations, and universities in the circulation of knowledge. Maria the Jewess and the Alexandrian tradition. Paracelsus and iatrochemistry. Evolution of experimental practices and alchemical instrumentation.

The Constitution of Matter and the Origin of the Concept of Element

Conceptions of matter in Greek philosophy: the single principle, the theory of elements, and atomism. Democritus, Epicurus, Plato, and Aristotle. Conceptions of matter in alchemy. The Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Descartes and mechanism. Robert Boyle and the redefinition of the concept of element. The phlogiston theory and its eventual supersession.

The Birth of Quantitative Chemistry
The development of measuring instruments: the balance, and the measurement of density and temperature. The introduction of quantitative measurement into chemical practice. The principle of the conservation of mass, the determination of substance composition, stoichiometry, and the law of definite proportions. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier within the context of the Chemical Revolution.

Pneumatic Chemistry and Lavoisier’s Revolution
The study of air and gases. The discovery of different types of "air." "Fixed air" and gas research. Joseph Priestley, Henry Cavendish, and other key figures in pneumatic chemistry. Instruments for studying and measuring gases. Lavoisier and the overturning of the phlogiston theory. The birth of modern chemistry.

Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
The evolution of the concept of the element. John Dalton and atomic theory. Laws of mass and volume. The determination of atomic weights. Avogadro’s principle. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and the system of atomic weights. The 19th-century debate on atomism. Stanislao Cannizzaro and the Karlsruhe Congress.

The Evolution of the Language of Chemistry
From the symbolic language of alchemy to the construction of modern chemical language. Alchemical symbols, Dalton’s symbols, and the introduction of Berzelius’s letter-based symbols. The evolution of chemical formulas and reaction equations. The development of chemical nomenclature.

Valence, Structure, and the Birth of Organic Chemistry
The development of organic chemistry and the analysis of organic substances. Vitalism and organic synthesis. Isomerism. Radical and substitution theories. The evolution of structural theories and the introduction of the concept of valence. Stereochemistry. The structure of aromatic compounds and the development of the language of organic chemistry. Jane Marcet and the popularization of chemistry between the 18th and 19th centuries.

Electricity, Electrochemistry, and the Discovery of the Electron
From studies on electricity to Volta’s pile. Electrolysis and the identification of new elements. Humphry Davy and the concept of affinity. Berzelius and electrochemical dualism. Faraday and the laws of electrolysis. Electrolytic dissociation. The discovery of the electron.

Evolution of the concepts of acids and bases
Origins of the concepts of acids and alkalis. Mineral acids and their preparation. Classification of acids and bases. The theories of Lavoisier and Liebig. Arrhenius and electrolytic dissociation. The Brønsted-Lowry theory. Lewis’s electronic theory. Evolution of the concept of acid strength and the use of indicators.

Classification of elements and the Periodic Table
Early attempts to classify elements. Searching for analogies and regularities in chemical properties. The problem of the natural order of elements. Dmitri Mendeleev and the formulation of the periodic law. Construction and dissemination of the Periodic Table. Correction of atomic weights and prediction of the existence of as-yet-unknown elements. Consolidation of the law of periodicity.

Discovery of missing elements and the evolution of the Periodic Table
Spectroscopy as a tool for element identification. Discovery of gallium, scandium, and germanium, and confirmation of Mendeleev’s predictions. Discovery of the noble gases. Marie Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium. Ida Noddack and the discovery of rhenium. Marguerite Perey and the discovery of francium. Radiochemical methods, artificial elements, and transuranium elements. Evolution and expansion of the Periodic Table in the 20th century.

Subatomic particles and atomic models
The study of electrical discharges in gases and cathode rays. X-rays and radioactivity. J. J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron. Early atomic models. The atomic nucleus. The nature of radiation and atomic structure. Isotopes. Bohr and electron configuration. Marie Curie and research on radioactivity. Lise Meitner and the interpretation of nuclear fission. Nuclear reactions: fission and fusion.

Chemistry, society, and industrial development
The emergence and development of early inorganic chemical industry processes. The relationship between advances in chemical knowledge, technological innovation, and economic and social transformations. Early environmental impacts of the chemical industry and the gradual realization of the relationship between chemistry, the environment, and society.

Fundamentals of chemistry education
Key methods and tools for teaching chemistry. Incorporating a historical-epistemological perspective into chemistry instruction. Designing simple lesson plans. Using laboratory work as a tool for learning chemical concepts. Practical examples and experimental activities.

Textbook Information

The History of Chemistry- John Hudson-SPRINGER

Course Planning

	Subjects	Text References
1	Origins of Chemistry and Proto-chemistry – Alchemy and the Birth of Chemical Practice	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
2	The constitution of matter and the origin of the concept of an element – The birth of quantitative chemistry	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
3	Pneumatic Chemistry and Lavoisier’s Revolution – Elements, Atoms, and Molecules	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
4	Evolution of the Language of Chemistry – Valence, Structure, and the Birth of Organic Chemistry	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
5	Electricity, electrochemistry, and the discovery of the electron – Evolution of the concepts of acid and base	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
6	The Classification of Elements and the Periodic Table – The Discovery of Missing Elements and the Evolution of the Periodic Table	The History of Chemistry. John Hudson, Springer
7	Subatomic particles and atomic models – Chemistry, society, and industrial development
8	Fundamentals of Chemistry Teaching

Learning Assessment

Learning Assessment Procedures

The examination consists of an oral test and the evaluation of reports on laboratory experiments.

Examples of frequently asked questions and / or exercises

What are the main differences between alchemy and modern chemistry?
How did Boyle and Lavoisier contribute to redefining the concept of an element?
Explain the significance of Dalton’s atomic theory and the roles played by Avogadro and Cannizzaro in developing the concepts of the atom and the molecule.
What were the key stages leading to the formulation of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table?
Why was the Periodic Table’s predictive power so crucial to its acceptance?
How did the discovery of gallium, scandium, and germanium contribute to confirming the periodic law?
What were the key stages leading to the discovery of the electron and the development of early atomic models?
How have the concepts of acids and bases evolved over time?
What relationship can be identified between the development of chemistry, industrialization, and social and environmental consequences?
Compare the concept of an element as understood by Boyle, Lavoisier, and Mendeleev.
Relate the development of atomic weights to the construction of the Periodic Table.
Choose a discovery or theory from the history of chemistry and illustrate its scientific significance and the historical context in which it emerged.
What was Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier’s contribution to the Chemical Revolution?
What roles did Marie Curie, Ida Noddack, Lise Meitner, and Marguerite Perey play in the development of chemistry between the 19th and 20th centuries?
How did the social and institutional context influence women's participation and recognition in the history of chemistry?
Choose a female figure discussed in the course and discuss her scientific contribution within the relevant historical context.
How can the history of chemistry be used as a teaching tool?
Briefly outline a teaching activity based on an episode from the history of chemistry.

Degree Course in

Chemistry