STORIA DELLA CHIMICA E TAVOLA PERIODICA

Academic Year 2026/2027 - Teacher: VALENTINA OLIVERI

Expected Learning Outcomes

The educational objective of the course is to provide a general overview of the History of Chemistry, from its origins to the beginning of the 20th century, outlining the main themes and conceptual developments that have characterized its evolution, with particular emphasis on the Periodic Table of the Elements. The course will illustrate the foundations underlying the development of scientific thought, the historical and cultural context in which Chemistry evolved, and the effects of this development on society and the environment, with particular reference to the emergence of the first inorganic industrial processes. A section will be devoted to the main methods and tools used in Chemistry education, aimed at developing the fundamental skills required to design effective teaching pathways. Practical exercises will follow, providing examples of the application of the teaching methodologies presented.

1. Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of the course, students will have acquired knowledge of the main stages in the evolution of Chemistry, from its origins to the beginning of the 20th century, and will understand the historical, cultural, and scientific context in which the discipline developed. They will be familiar with the main conceptual achievements that characterized the evolution of chemical thought, with particular reference to the origin and development of the Periodic Table of the Elements, as well as with the fundamentals of Chemistry education.

2. Applying Knowledge and Understanding

Students will be able to interpret the evolution of chemical thought in relation to its historical, cultural, and social context, and to analyze the significance of the main scientific discoveries and conceptual developments, together with their impact on society and the environment. They will also be able to design simple teaching pathways using methodologies and tools appropriate for the teaching of Chemistry.

3. Making Judgements

Students will develop the ability to critically assess the role of Chemistry in the development of society and scientific progress, analyzing the relationships among scientific knowledge, technological innovation, and social and environmental impacts. They will also be able to select appropriate teaching methodologies according to the educational objectives and the specific learning context.

4. Communication Skills

Students will be able to present the main topics in the history of Chemistry and Chemistry education clearly and rigorously, using appropriate scientific terminology and adapting their language to different communicative and educational contexts.

5. Learning Skills

Students will develop the skills required to independently explore topics related to the history of Chemistry, Chemistry education, and the evolution of scientific knowledge, making critical use of bibliographic and historical sources, as well as scientific and educational resources for further study and professional development.


Information for Students with Disabilities and/or Specific Learning Disorders (SLDs)

To ensure equal opportunities and in compliance with current legislation, students may request an individual meeting in order to arrange any appropriate compensatory and/or dispensatory measures, in accordance with the learning objectives of the course and their specific needs.

Course Structure

The course consists of 35 hours of lectures and 15 hours of laboratory activities, organized into 3 experimental sessions.

Lectures may include opportunities for active student participation through discussions, questions, and short activities aimed at further exploring the topics covered. Laboratory activities are intended to apply and deepen selected course contents through experimental work and the subsequent preparation of laboratory reports.

Required Prerequisites

Basic knowledge of Chemistry.

Attendance of Lessons

Attendance is mandatory, in accordance with the regulations of the Degree Programme.

Detailed Course Content

Origins of Chemistry and Protochemistry
The origins of chemical practices in ancient civilizations. The control of fire and the first transformations of matter. Metallurgy, glassmaking and ceramics, lime production, pigments and dyes. Preparation of cosmetics, perfumes, soaps, medicinal preparations, and fermented beverages.

Alchemy and the Emergence of Chemical Practice
Origins and development of alchemy in Chinese, Indian, and Alexandrian cultures. Arabic alchemy and the transmission of knowledge to the Western world. Medieval and European alchemy. The role of monasteries, translations, and universities in the circulation of knowledge. Maria the Jewess and the Alexandrian tradition. Paracelsus and iatrochemistry. Evolution of experimental practices and alchemical instrumentation.

The Constitution of Matter and the Origin of the Concept of Element
Conceptions of matter in Greek philosophy: the single principle, the theory of the elements, and atomism. Democritus, Epicurus, Plato, and Aristotle. Conceptions of matter in alchemy. The Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Descartes and mechanism. Robert Boyle and the redefinition of the concept of element. The phlogiston theory and its decline.

The Birth of Quantitative Chemistry
Development of measuring instruments: balances, density, and temperature. Introduction of quantitative measurement into chemical practice. The principle of conservation of mass, determination of the composition of substances, stoichiometry, and the law of definite proportions. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier in the context of the Chemical Revolution.

Pneumatic Chemistry and the Lavoisier Revolution
The study of air and gases. The discovery of different “airs”. Fixed air and the study of gases. Joseph Priestley, Henry Cavendish, and other leading figures of Pneumatic Chemistry. Instruments for the study and measurement of gases. Lavoisier and the rejection of the phlogiston theory. The birth of modern Chemistry.

Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
Evolution of the concept of element. John Dalton and atomic theory. Gravimetric and volumetric laws. Determination of atomic weights. Avogadro’s principle. Jöns Jacob Berzelius and the system of atomic weights. The nineteenth-century debate on atomism. Stanislao Cannizzaro and the Karlsruhe Congress.

Evolution of the Language of Chemistry
From the symbolic language of alchemy to the development of modern chemical language. Alchemical symbols, Dalton’s symbols, and the introduction of Berzelius’s letter symbols. Evolution of chemical formulae and reaction equations. Development of chemical nomenclature.

Valence, Structure, and the Birth of Organic Chemistry
Development of Organic Chemistry and the analysis of organic substances. Vitalism and organic synthesis. Isomerism. Radical and substitution theories. Evolution of structural theories and the introduction of the concept of valence. Stereochemistry. Structure of aromatic compounds and development of the language of Organic Chemistry. Jane Marcet and the popularization of Chemistry between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Electricity, Electrochemistry, and the Discovery of the Electron
From early studies on electricity to Volta’s battery. Electrolysis and the identification of new elements. Humphry Davy and the concept of affinity. Berzelius and electrochemical dualism. Faraday and the laws of electrolysis. Electrolytic dissociation. The discovery of the electron.

Evolution of the Concepts of Acids and Bases
Origins of the concepts of acids and alkalis. Mineral acids and their preparation. Classification of acids and bases. The theories of Lavoisier and Liebig. Arrhenius and electrolytic dissociation. Brønsted-Lowry theory. Lewis electronic theory. Evolution of the concept of acid strength and the use of indicators.

The Classification of the Elements and the Periodic Table
Early attempts to classify the elements. Search for analogies and regularities in chemical properties. The problem of the natural order of the elements. Dmitri Mendeleev and the formulation of the periodic law. Construction and dissemination of the Periodic Table. Correction of atomic weights and prediction of the existence of as yet undiscovered elements. Consolidation of the periodic law.

The Discovery of Missing Elements and the Evolution of the Periodic Table
Spectroscopy as a tool for identifying elements. Discovery of gallium, scandium, and germanium and confirmation of Mendeleev’s predictions. Discovery of the noble gases. Marie Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium. Ida Noddack and the discovery of rhenium. Marguerite Perey and the discovery of francium. Radiochemical methods, artificial elements, and transuranium elements. Evolution and expansion of the Periodic Table in the twentieth century.

Subatomic Particles and Atomic Models
The study of electrical discharge in gases and cathode rays. X-rays and radioactivity. J. J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron. Early atomic models. The atomic nucleus. Nature of radiation and atomic structure. Isotopes. Bohr and electronic configuration. Marie Curie and studies on radioactivity. Lise Meitner and the interpretation of nuclear fission. Nuclear reactions, fission, and fusion.

Chemistry, Society, and Industrial Development
Birth and development of the first processes in the inorganic chemical industry. Relationships between the advancement of chemical knowledge, technological innovation, and economic and social change. Early environmental consequences of the development of the chemical industry and the progressive emergence of awareness of the relationship between Chemistry, the environment, and society.

Elements of Chemistry Education
Main methods and tools for teaching Chemistry. Use of the historical and epistemological perspective in Chemistry education. Design of simple teaching pathways. Use of laboratory experience as a tool for learning chemical concepts. Applied examples and experimental activities.

Textbook Information

Hudson, J. The History of Chemistry. Springer.

Brock, W. H. The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.


AuthorTitlePublisherYearISBN
Maggio, F.; Zingales, R.Appunti di un corso di storia della chimicaEdises2023978-8836231577
Asimov, I.Breve storia della chimica. Introduzione alle idee della chimica. Zanichelli19799788808040640
Hudson, J. The History of Chemistry.Springer1992978-1-4684-6443-6
Brock, W. H. The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.20169780191785085

Course Planning

 SubjectsText References
1Origins of Chemistry and Protochemistry – Alchemy and the Emergence of Chemical PracticeBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016
2The Constitution of Matter and the Origin of the Concept of Element – The Birth of Quantitative ChemistryBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016
3Pneumatic Chemistry and the Lavoisier Revolution – Elements, Atoms, and MoleculesScerri, E. R., The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press 
4Evolution of the Language of Chemistry – Valence, Structure, and the Birth of Organic ChemistryBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016
5Electricity, Electrochemistry, and the Discovery of the Electron – Evolution of the Concepts of Acids and BasesBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016
6The Classification of the Elements and the Periodic Table – The Discovery of Missing Elements and the Evolution of the Periodic TableScerri, E. R., The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press 
7Subatomic Particles and Atomic Models – Chemistry, Society, and Industrial DevelopmentBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016
8Elements of Chemistry EducationBrock, W. H., The History of Chemistry: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2016

Learning Assessment

Learning Assessment Procedures

The examination consists of an oral test aimed at assessing the student’s knowledge and understanding of the main topics covered in the History of Chemistry course, with particular reference to the evolution of chemical thought, the major discoveries and conceptual developments of the discipline, the development of the Periodic Table of the Elements, and the historical, cultural, and scientific context in which such knowledge emerged.

During the oral examination, the student’s ability to establish connections among events, theories, and scientific discoveries, to place them within their relevant historical and social context, and to critically discuss their impact on society and the environment will also be assessed. Clarity of presentation, ability to develop and support arguments, and appropriate use of scientific terminology will also be taken into account.

The final assessment will also consider the reports on the laboratory activities carried out during the course, with particular attention to the scientific accuracy of the content, the ability to describe and interpret the experimental activities performed, and the clarity and coherence of the presentation.

Examples of frequently asked questions and / or exercises

  • How did Boyle and Lavoisier contribute to the redefinition of the concept of the element?
  • Explain the significance of Dalton’s atomic theory and the role of Avogadro and Cannizzaro in the development of the concepts of atom and molecule.
  • What were the main stages that led to the formulation of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table?
  • Why was the predictive power of the Periodic Table so important for its acceptance?
  • How did the discovery of gallium, scandium, and germanium contribute to confirming the periodic law?
  • What were the main stages that led to the discovery of the electron and the development of the first atomic models?
  • How have the concepts of acids and bases evolved over time?
  • What relationship can be identified between the development of Chemistry, industrialization, and their social and environmental consequences?
  • Compare the concept of the element in Boyle, Lavoisier, and Mendeleev.
  • Relate the development of atomic weights to the construction of the Periodic Table.
  • Choose a discovery or theory in the history of Chemistry and explain its scientific significance and the historical context in which it developed.
  • What was Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier’s contribution to the Chemical Revolution?
  • What roles did Marie Curie, Ida Noddack, Lise Meitner, and Marguerite Perey play in the development of Chemistry between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
  • How did the social and institutional context affect the participation and recognition of women in the history of Chemistry?
  • Choose one female figure discussed in the course and discuss her scientific contribution within the relevant historical context.
  • How can the history of Chemistry be used as a teaching tool?
  • Briefly design a teaching activity based on an episode from the history of Chemistry.